Dr. Johnson s Death Of Death For The Cold Blooded Atrocity

In March 1906, Tennessee native Ed Johnson was sentenced to death for the rape of eighteen-year-old Nevada Taylor. Mr. Johnson supposedly choked the victim with a leather strap and subsequently sexually assaulted her. When testifying, the woman only had one adjective to describe the perpetrator, a word that damned the twenty-six-year-old to a guilty verdict; black. Although he had never been in possession of a leather strap, had a sound alibi verified by countless testimonies, and the rape victim never definitively identified Mr. Johnson during the trial, the all-white jury came to the conclusion that the African-American man was undeniably responsible for the cold-blooded atrocity. A day later, while sitting in his cell, a mob of white men dragged Ed Johnson out of the jailhouse, paraded him around the streets, and ultimately hanged the guiltless man at Walnut Street Bridge. The men then began to fire round after round at his lifeless body for the amusement of townsfolk who had gath ered to watch the lynching, until, â€Å"one stray bullet severed the rope,† (Yellin 1). As the bloody corpse fell to the ground to the delight of the white children, â€Å" one of the men put the barrel of his gun to Mr. Johnson s head and fired five times,† (Yellin 1). The men faced no charges and nearly one hundred years later the Supreme Court found the viciously murdered man innocent. Unfortunately, when it comes to promoting justice for non-white Americans, the United States’ criminal justice systemShow MoreRelatedOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pages ed., Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History Jack Metzgar, Striking Steel: Solidarity Remembered Janis Appier, Policing Women: The Sexual Politics of Law Enforcement and the LAPD Allen Hunter, ed., Rethinking the Cold War Eric Foner, ed., The New American History. Revised and Expanded Edition E SSAYS ON _ T WENTIETH- C ENTURY H ISTORY Edited by Michael Adas for the American Historical Association TEMPLE UNIVERSITY PRESS PHILADELPHIA

Firewood the Burns the Hottest and the Longest Essay

Firewood that Burns the Hottest and the Longest Purpose: Does the species of wood affect the rate at which it burns and how much heat it gives off? Hypothesis: If the burning time and heat temperature relies on the type of wood, then oak and maple should burn the longest and give off more heat because they are dense hardwoods. Research: The terms hardwood and softwood refer to the density of wood, how hard it is, and how much weight it has. A dense hardwood like oak or maple has high energy content per cord, so it releases more heat and produces long-lasting embers. Hardwood is the best type of firewood for long lasting warmth and cooking but can sometimes be hard to ignite and split†¦show more content†¦Fuel is a less combustible material that burns slow and steady once lit, like tree trunks, coal and oil. To start a fire, first the tinder is lit on fire. Then the kindling on top of it catches fire. When the kindling produces enough heat, the fuel will catch on fire. When all three ingredients are present in the correct amount, oxygen, heat, and fuel will start a fire and keep it burning. Materials: * Three 8 inch pieces of pine * Three 8 inch pieces of spruce * Three 8 inch pieces of cedar * Three 8 inch pieces of maple * Three 8 inch pieces of red oak * Stopwatch * Metal oven Thermometer * Recording sheet and pencil * Fireplace Procedure: 1. Gather the 5 different types of firewood and materials 2. Place thermometer in the fireplace 3. Place one of the 8 inch pieces of wood into fire place 4. Start gas logs fire to ignite the piece of wood 5. Start the stopwatch 6. Turn off gas after 2 minutes 7. Measure and record the highest temperature 8. When wood has burned completely, stop stopwatch and record the time 9. Remove burnt piece of wood and restart at step 3 with next piece of wood Results: Firewood Heat Temperature and How Long It Takes To Burn Wood | Hottest Temperature | Burning Time | PineTrial 1Trial 2Trial 3Average | Degrees Fahrenheit185190205193 | 7 min 35 sec7 min 52 sec8 min 8

The Coca-Cola Company. Csr Policy Free Essays

The Coca-Cola Company and its CSR policy There is no doubt that one of the most popular multinationals today is The Coca-Cola Company. It has strong CSR policy where â€Å"CSR† is not only about being responsible for customers and fans around the world but also being aware of employees’ needs. Talking about employees – The Roberts Environmental Center at Claremont McKenna College in California publishes annual analyses of corporate environmental and social reports (together called sustainability reports). We will write a custom essay sample on The Coca-Cola Company. Csr Policy or any similar topic only for you Order Now In 2009, The Coca-Cola Company received an overall rating of A+, topping the list of companies reviewed in its sector. Among the keys to earning that recognition is maintaining world-class standards for fair and dignified treatment of all the people who work for it. Its Workplace Rights Policy serves to ensure that a consistent approach to workplace rights is applied worldwide – as an integral part of culture, strategy and day-to-day operations. However this is just one side of the coin. Suppliers are another group The Coca-Cola Company proves loyal to. Having a sound, stable and ethical supply base is important for its growth and the footprint it leaves in local communities around the world. Its suppliers provide its system with materials, including ingredients, packaging and machinery, as well as goods and services. As a company, it has a responsibility to hold its direct suppliers and bottling partners to standards no less than those required by applicable law. It also has an opportunity to support community development by purchasing goods and services from minority- and women-owned business enterprises (MWBEs). Furthermore in 2009 The Coca-Cola Company is the recipient of the prestigious World Environment Center’s (WEC) Twenty-Fifth Annual Gold Medal for International Corporate Achievement in Sustainable Development (for implementing strategic business initiatives in the high impact areas of water stewardship, sustainable packaging, energy management and climate protection) and is among the 10 recipients of the Natural Health Magazine’s first â€Å"Green Choice† awards (selected because of its leadership and commitment to recycling and impressive light-weighting efforts). Although it is really difficult to point out all the â€Å"green† initiatives this multinational is up to daily, monthly, annually or on a long-term basis, here are some of its highlights. Firstly, water efficiency is viewed as a main goal. To be the most efficient water user among peer companies is a distinction the company wants to achieve. In 2008, on average they used 2. 43liters of water to produce a one liter beverage. One liter goes into the beverage itself, and 1. 43liters are used for manufacturing processes such as rinsing, cleaning, and cooling. Still they are nearly half way to their 2012 goal of 2. 7liters per liter which will be a 20 percent improvement. Additionally, since 2005 they have been involved in more than 250 community water partnerships in 70 countries to support locally relevant initiatives, such as watershed protection; expanding community drinking water and sanitation access; agricultural water use efficiency; and education and awareness programs. I n 2009, respected experts are asked to work with them to calculate the water benefits of these projects. Secondly, considerable attention is paid to packaging. For an example – more than half of the metal in aluminum cans is recycled. The Company’s plant in the United States is the world’s largest plastic bottle to bottle recycling plant with capacity to produce approximately 100 million pounds of food grade recycled PET plastic for reuse each year – the equivalent of producing nearly 2 billion 20ounce Coca-Cola bottles. As a conclusion: The Coca-Cola Company is one of those multinationals we can accuse of great marketing strategy and still believe it is not all about making profit or making people turn a blind eye to its â€Å"dark† side. Sometimes it does matter to do things with an appeal! How to cite The Coca-Cola Company. Csr Policy, Papers

Civil And Divine Law

Civil And Divine Law-antigone Essay Amanda SadowskiPeriod ThreeSeptember 15, 1999The Clash Between Civil and Divine LawCharles Dickens once said, The law is an ass. Though at first, it seems harsh and very strange, the deeper meaning is one that is a perfect summary of the Greek tragedy Antigone. The meaning of an ass, is a stubborn, obstinate, perverse, immovable animal. Throughout Antigone, the characters must deal with the clash between Civil and Divine law. They struggle to discover what is truly right and wrong, good and bad. In the end, they are forced to make the distinction as to which is which. In Sophocles Antigone, Civil and Divine Law both have ass-like qualities. The decision by every character for what is most important to them, determines their fate and destiny. Antigone firmly believed that Divine law was far more superior to Civil Law in all respects. To her, the gods determined her fate completely. Obeying the gods was more crucial to obeying the government. I know I am pleasing those I should please most. (Line 103) She chose to bury her brother Polynieces, though she knew that in doing so she would face her own certain death because King Creon forbid it. According to the Divine law, the dead need to have a proper burial in order to make the journey to the underworld. Antigone would not let her brother go without it. Antigone said of Creon, It is not for him to keep me from my own. (Line 54) Antigone is proud of her actions and even shortly before her death she knows she made the right choice. Her death was a fair trade for the justice of her brother. So for such judges so. (Lines 509-514) Unlike Creons laws, Antigone vied for love not hate. Through choosing the Divine law over Civil law, Antigone also chose death. Haemon, son of Creon, and his mother Eurydices, took their lives away as a result of the clash between Divine and Civil law. Haemon felt civil law was very important because it was his fathers law and he respected his fathers beliefs. At first, he agreed with the punishment of death for (his soon to be wife) Antigone. No marriageyour leadership. (Lines 690-691) But Haemon also valued the Divine law strongly and felt compassion for Antigone and her brave actions. He tells his father that he alone cannot control everything. There is noone man only. (Lines 798-799) Haemon foreshadows, telling his father what is yet to come if something does not change. Then she must die- and dying destroy another. (Line 813) Haemon took his life after seeing his poor wife dead, and Eurydice did the same after witnessing her sons death. The law eventually determined the fate of both Haemon and Eurydice both. The Sentry and Ismene were not as harshly affected by the fate of the law as many others. They both played roles which forced them to make decisions between their values of Divine and Civil laws. The Sentry first discovered that someone had given burial to Polynidies and had to decide whether to tell King Creon of this and obey the Civil law, or value his Divine law and let the proper burial be given. He told Creon of the crime, and though he had not performed it, the King judged him as though he had. He himself would face the consequence of death unless he found the true criminal. He found Antigone, and was let free. Ismene also chose the Civil law over Divine. Ismene refused to help Antigone in the burial of their brother because it was against the Kings rule. You are so headstrong. Creon has forbidden it. (Line 53) Ismene takes note of the Divine law and realizes what is truly the right thing to do though she doesnt follow her heart. I do indeedis not sensible. (Lines 74-78) By fo llowing the Civil law, Ismene and the Sentrys lives were saved. .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 , .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .postImageUrl , .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 , .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:hover , .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:visited , .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:active { border:0!important; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:active , .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793 .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udad06f4e1082b4d0caa9227d98a4a793:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Scarlet Letter Essay QuestionsKing Creon was the most affected by his decision on what was right and wrong. He felt that the Civil law was far more important and superior to Divine law. Most of the reason he felt this way, was based on the fact that this was his own personal law which he held over the land. He made the rules for the people to follow but he himself was not subject to obey them. Creon could not handle being under the law of a higher being than himself. He based all his decisions on what was civilly correct and assumed he was always right. Yes, my sonfathers decision. (Lines692-694) The King never took note of how his actions had an affect on his life and tho se around him. He never listened to what others had to say and refused to do so. In his judgement of Antigone, the King didnt show any compassion for what she did for her brother, though he knew it was truly the good thing to do. By following his law and sentencing her to death, he also caused the eventual death of his son Haemon, and his wife Eurydice. It was not until after he had lost so much, that he realized what mattered most. Lead me away upon me. (Lines 1413-1419) The Divine law had an extremely strong effect on King Creon and his life. There is one point in everyones life, where you must make the distinction between right and wrong, or Civil and Divine. Most of the time the decision will not be important enough to determine your fate, as it did for Antigone, Creon, and many others, but no matter what there will be an after effect. It is up to you to do the right thing and never forget about the effects it will have on those around you. A fine balance between what is Civil and what is Divine is the safest way to hold your beliefs. As the chorus said, Wisdom is farage teach wisdom. (Lines 1420-1424) English

FRANCHISE Essays (397 words) - Franchises, Contract Law, Marketing

FRANCHISE Franchise is a type of license that a franchisee receives to allow them to have access to a business's/the franchisor ownership knowledge, processes and trademarks in order to allow the franchisee to sell a product or provide a service under the business's name. In exchange for gaining the franchise, the franchisee usually pays the franchisor an initial start-up and annual licensing fees. Franchises are a very popular method for people to start a business, especially for those who wish to operate in a highly competitive industry like the fast-food industry. One of the biggest advantages of purchasing a franchise is that you have access to an established company's brand name; meaning that you do not need to spend further resources to get your name and product out to customers. An example of franchise is McDonald. At the time of publication, this international quick-service restaurant company has over 75 percent of its worldwide restaurants independently owned. Business owners can purchase a new or existing restaurant. An initial down payment is required, and the rest of the cost can be financed for up to seven years. During the terms of the franchise agreement, ongoing fees include rent and service fees. Some of the qualities the company is looking for in a franchisee are business experience, an acceptable credit history, willingness to complete the company's comprehensive training program and sufficient liquid assets to invest in the business. HOLDING COMPANY Holding Company is a company that is created to buy and owns the shares of other companies. A holding company exists for the purpose of controlling another company, which might also be a corporation, limited partnership or limited liability company, rather than for the purpose of producing its own goods or services. Holding companies also exist for the purpose of owning property such as real estate, patents, trademarks, stocks and other assets. If a business is 100% owned by a holding company. An example of a holding company is Advertising Agencies. In the days depicted in the TV series "Mad Men," advertising agencies kept most of their efforts in house. Today, with so many media outlets from which potential customers can choose, advertising agencies act as holding companies, owning and controlling smaller companies that can specialize in one aspect of marketing. These holding companies also often control small advertising studios that develop websites, print ads and TV commercials.

womens roles 1900-1940s essays

women's roles 1900-1940s essays Womans place is in the Home but Home is not contained within the four walls of an individual home. Home is the community.1 These words, written by Rheta Childe Dorr in 1910, typified the attitude of women during the decades immediately following the turn of the century. The period between 1900 and 1940 was a time of much political, social, and economic change for women in the United States. As Dorr illustrated, many of the fundamental beliefs regarding women remained constant, while their actual roles in the American way of life changed immensely. During this period, women became much more active in politics, a fact best exemplified by their inputs and successes in the Progressive Era. This period was a time of many tumultuous changes for the nation in general such as World War I and the Great Depression. Also, the United States was in the middle of a massive shift from an agricultural nation to an industrial nation during the first few decades of the twentieth century. Each of these factors significantly influenced womens roles in both the family and the work force. Despite the many advances t hat women made for themselves during these years, they were still not treated equal to men, and to make matters worse, within their own sex, there was an incredible amount of discrimination based on class, ethnicity and race. Although they did face many hardships, these women made a difference. In a mere forty years, they managed to make more changes and advancements than anyone had ever dreamed possible in the preceding centuries and in doing so, they paved the way for the success of future generations of women. The years following the turn of the century were a time of much political empowerment for women. First and foremost, in 1920 women were finally given the right to vote; a right they truly deserved and for which they had fought long and hard. This political change did not immediately have quit...

Analyze a photogrpah Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analyze a photogrpah - Essay Example The figure of Ophelia has long been symbolic of the silencing of women in literature and in the larger context of society itself. Crewdson uses the same principle to create his work. It is interesting to note that the artistic representations of Ophelia changes media over time as well. Starting from the famous oil on canvas painting of Ophelia by John Everett Millais, the more haunting painting of Ophelia by Pierre Auguste Cot to the rich, pastoral representation by painter Henry Nelson O’ Neil, the image of the manic depressive drowning herself seemed to have struck a chord with several artists over the ages. Crewdson recognises this timeless quality of the character and chooses to interpret it himself also but in the different, more contemporary, medium of film. Studying the picture closely reveals how the same motif of female suppression persists in history. Here, the scene is not a forest and a river, but a regular drawing room. The drawing room itself, although not overtl y outrageous, is extremely surrealistic and eerie in some ways. The most visible evidence of its unnatural condition, of course, is the water that appears to flood the room. The still water with the woman’s hand partly submerged in it appears almost frozen and lends the entire scene a rigid, menacing quality. The drawing room is heavily furnished, almost stifling.

Sustainability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 4

Sustainability - Essay Example In the paper a new design of wheelchair has been proposed to provide solution to the problem. Many handicapped people live alone and it becomes difficult for them to get help for every specific movement at their home. They need a system to help them to reach high things on shelves and they want a system which enables easy movement on stairs. In the paper, a new design of wheelchair has been suggested which will help people moving on wheelchair in the following manner - The paper tries to understand the specification of current model and recommends modifications and changes in suggested model to enhance sustainability to provide improved movement to handicapped in home and outside without taking help of anybody else. The design uses battery operated system for movement and suggests further development of system based on renewable sources of energy such as solar energy. Sustainability or sustainable development is significant as it has integrated human development (Bell & Morse, 2003). The decisive role of companies to get sustainability has been discussed on strategic level (Hart, 1995, 1997; Roome, 1998) and instrumental level (Schaltegger and Burritt, 2000; Bennett and James, 1999). Sustainability requires balanced operational conception, integrated operation conception and integrated strategic conception. In the paper the sustainability of the design of a wheelchair used by handicapped people has been discussed. Some of the key factors contributing to product innovation are industrialization, open market and a need for high quality products from customer. Design parameters in the current system include the wheels, the sensors to initiate movement of wheels based on weight change and the battery operated motor. Attachments for increasing the height of chair - The stair climbing wheelchair should be able to balance on two wheels in order to raise the chair’s height and enable the user to reach things at a height. The new

The white progressives in the 20th century Essay

The white progressives in the 20th century - Essay Example The imperialist inclination of the white progressives of the early 20th Century is seen in their support for the acquisition of territories. One such territory according to Pestritto and Atto was the Territory of Alaska. This territory was bought from Russia, a move that was strongly rejected by many citizens. The progressives supported imperialist ideologies because they advocated for the repeal of the Canadian Reciprocity Act. This act sought to establish free trade between the United States and Canada. In its place, they demanded the instigation of tariffs that would strengthen the competitiveness of the United States. According to them, the present tariff policy was hindering the industrial and commercial advancement of the United States. White progressives’ support for imperialist ideas is also exemplified in their emphasis for declining any treaty between the United States and any other country that did not recognize the superiority of America or expatriation. This demon strates their amplified perception of the country and their unfair view of other nations. Finally, the concept of the progressive party is another proof of their imperialism. In its search for support from citizens, it invited affiliation with outright disregard for potential supporters’ affiliation to other parties. It spoke in a way to show that all other parties were flawed and there was no implication that the party could cooperate with other parties in its quest to execute the principles it popularized.

Divorce Reform Act

Divorce Reform Act In 1963 the law still denied divorce except to those who could provide evidence sufficient to convince a court of a partners adultery or other matrimonial offence. In that year, a determined attempt was made to change the law to allow divorce where a couple had lived apart for at least seven years. The attempt failed. But less than a decade later the Divorce Reform Act 1969 allowed divorceif the parties had lived apart for two years (and both consented) or five years (if one did not consent). How did such a dramatic change come about in what, in this context, seems a remarkably short time? (Castles, 1994) One answer no doubt lies in what could be called the spirit of the age. 1963 was, after all, the year in which (according to Philip Larkin) sexual intercourse began. It was also the year of the so-called Profumo affair in which a Minister of the Crown admitted lying to Parliament about his relationship with a woman; and unprecedented press publicity was given to the surrounding events and rumours. (For example, another Minister was said to indulge in weird sexual practices involving his appearing nakedsave for a maskat parties.) Lord Dennings exhaustive investigation into these matters (concluding that although there had indeed been orgies where guests indulged in sexual activities of a vile and revolting nature and that it was true dinner had been served by a naked masked man yet there was not a shred of evidence that the man in question was a Minister) did little to calm the fevered atmosphere. In the circumstances, it became increasingly difficult to believe that civilisation woul d be endangered by allowing the thousands of (often elderly and usually eminently respectable) couples living together in what came to be called stable illicit unions to crush the empty legal shell of an earlier marriage so that they could become in law what they had long been in fact (Castles and Flood, 1991). Increase in divorce The massive increase in divorce associated with the two twentieth-century World Wars had been a source of grave anxiety to conventional opinion, which saw in the insidious growth in the divorce rate a tendency to take the duties and responsibilities of marriage less seriously than formerly and a threat to the whole stability of marriage as the basis of a secure and stable family life. At a somewhat less lofty level, those concerned with the administration of the family justice system became preoccupied with avoiding its collapse under the apparently relentless pressure of dirvorce petitions. 1But even amongst those who firmly believed the ideal of marriagein particular as a way of providing children the settled and harmonious life on which so much of their future happiness depends to be the traditional union for better for worse, for richer for poorer . . . till death us do part there was concern about the lot of the hundred thousand or more people living apart from their legal spous es in stable unions to which the law denied recognition. The impossibility of legalising such relationships against the will of an innocent legal spouse denied many men and women (and in particular the children they bore) adequate social and financial protection (Ceschini, 1995). In 1951 in an attempt to meet this concern, Mrs Eirene White had introduced a Private Members Bill into the House of Commons, avowedly intended to deal with marriages in which the spouses have lived separately for seven years, but in which no hitherto recognised ground for divorce exists or in which one partner, having grounds for action, declines to take it and keeps the other partner tied against his or her will, generally for life. The Bill did this by invoking a new principle, in that it looks to the breakdown of the marriage as the ground for divorce (whilst not prejudicing the right of an injured party to seek divorce under the existing matrimonial offence provisions). This was to be achieved by adding seven years separation to the existing grounds for divorce; but divroce was only to be granted on the separation ground if the court was satisfied, first, that there was no reasonable prospect of cohabitation being resumed; and secondly, that a petitioning husband had made adequa te provision for his familys maintenance (Chesnais, 1996). Everyone who spoke on the Bill conceded that the existing law, particularly by denying the freedom to remarry to those whose marriages were long functionally dead, was capable of causing considerable hardship and unhappiness. But opponents of change claimed that in relieving this unhappiness the Bill would weaken the institution of marriage and thereby produce much more unhappiness in the future (Smith, 2002). The Labour Government The Labour Government accepted that the problem of the stable illicit union was a real one. But the Attorney-General suggested that there were many other problems with the marriage laws, that it would be wrong to select one of them and deal with it in isolation, and that the right course would be to set up a Royal Commission to make a comprehensive study of the marriage laws. Although the House of Commons gave a second reading to the White Bill by 131 votes to 60, Mrs White eventually acceded to Government pressure and withdrew her Bill on terms that the Government would set up the Royal Commission it had proposed. In reality, as Lord Chancellor Jowitt told Archbishop Fisher, he had agreed to the Royal Commission in the hope of avoiding (the White Bill] which had given rise to it (Clark, 1999). The Royal Commission, established as one of the last acts of the Attlee Labour Government in September 1951 under the chairmanship of Lord Morton of Henryton was thus a temporising measure of a once traditional kind; and its Reportthe fruit of four years deliberation certainly did not satisfy the hopes of those who had seen a Royal Commission as the only chance of getting a real reform of the divorce laws, much less the expressed wish of Archbishop Fisher that a full inquiry would lead to a settlement lasting fifty years (Chester, 1977). On the main issue of the ground for divorce, the Commission was hopelessly divided. On only one proposition was there any broad agreement. All save one of the Commissioners agreed that the existing (and much criticised) law based on the doctrine of the matrimonial offence should be retained. Nine of the nineteen signatories went further and took an even more conservative view: they rejected the introduction of the doctrine of breakdown of marriage in any form. For this group such a doctrine would inevitably entail recognition of divorce by consenta change disastrous to the nation encouraging people to abandon their marriages on the flimsiest provocation–whilst divorce simply on the basis of a period of separation would have even more damaging consequences for the institution of marriage . . . it would mean that either spouse would be free to terminate the marriage at pleasure . . . [and] people would enter marriage knowing that no matter what they did or how their partners fel t, they could always get free. For these nine members, the proper function of the law was to give relief where a wrong had been done, not to provide a dignified and honourable means of release from a broken marriage. The matrimonial offence doctrine might indeed be artificial in its application to some cases, but it none the less provided a clear and intelligible principle; and the external buttress of a system of law specifying the circumstances in which individuals had the right to seek the dissolution of marriage helped them to strengthen their good impulses and weaken the bad (Smith,1992). Commissioners Another nine Commissioners did take a more positive view of reform. This group did not accept that divorce should only be available on proof of a matrimonial offence; and recommended making divorce available when a marriage had broken down irretrievably as demonstrated by the fact that the spouses had lived apart for seven years or more. But five of this group would have refused divorce for separation if either party objected; and even the four prepared to accept separation divorce against the will of one spouse would have insisted on an applicant in such a case demonstrating that the separation was attributable to unreasonable conduct of the other spouse. Only one member of the Commission, the Scottish judge Lord Walker, was prepared to take his stand on the ground of principle that the law should favour the dissolution of marriages which had indeed broken down, irrespective of the guilt or innocence of the petitioner; and that divorce should be available to a spouse who had lived a part from the other for at least three years and could establish that the facts and circumstances were such as to make it improbable that an ordinary husband and wife would ever resume cohabitation (Castles, 1994). Although the (Conservative) Government was sensitive to charges that Royal Commissions were a recognised and timely method of shelving inconvenient questions no one, in the light of the divergent views put forward in the Morton Report, could possibly expect any government to introduce legislation permitting divorce (even by consent) after a separation of seven years and any kind of official support for legislation permitting a man who had gone off leaving a guiltless wife for seven years [to] come back and divorce her against her will seemed even less likely (Smith, 1997). Not surprisingly, this setback was a bitter disappointment; and the criticisms made of the Morton Report by Professor O. R. McGregor have been influential in creating an enduring and strongly unfavourable perception of the Morton Commission. In McGregors view, the Morton Report contributed nothing to our knowledge; and had proved to be a device for obfuscating a socially urgent but politically inconvenient issue. It was ( McGregor conceded) a matter of opinion whether the Morton Commission was intellectually the worst Royal Commission of the twentieth century (although since he thought there could be no dispute that [it] is the most unreadable and confused it would seem the competition for the wooden spoon was, in McGregors view, not severe) (Simotta, 1995). This is not the place for a detailed examination of McGregors polemic; but subsequent events suggest that at least one of McGregors criticisms had touched a sensitive nerve. McGregor claimed that Lord Morton and his colleagues were hostile to the social sciences, that as a result of their ignorance of evidence which social scientists could have providedextending, apparently, to actual knowledge of the types of divorce law most likely to promote marital and familial stability the Commission was unable to penetrate to the heart of the problems set before them. The view that the assistance of social scientists was essential to inquiries became part of the conventional orthodoxy; and, as we shall see, considerable efforts were made to secure a social science input for the group established seven years later by the Archbishop of Canterbury (Peters, 1992). McGregor also seems to have regarded as a weakness the fact that the Morton Committeein contrast to the 1912 Gorrell Commission (whose chairman was known to have strong views in favour of divorce law reform, but whose membership also included some known to take a strongly conservative view)did not include either a representative of the Church on the one hand or any active proponent of reform on the other. It is certainly true that the Government devoted considerable effort to achieving a balanced and impartial membership; but if this was an error it was one which was not repeated. As we shall see, there was no nonsense about impartiality as a criterion in choosing sources of advice in the years leading up to the 1969 reforms (Meisaari-Polsa, 1997). Whatever may be thought about McGregors triumphalist beliefs in the potential of social science research for policy making, in one respect he can be shown to have been plainly wrong. He asserted that it was a safe prediction that divorce reform will take a long, long time; but in fact, little more than a decade later, the Divorce Reform Act swept the concept of the indissoluble marriage into history. Six years after the Morton Report divorce reform was given another chance. A Bill providing for divorce on the ground of seven years separation was brought forward by Mr Leo Abse Mp. The House of Commons gave the Bill a second reading and it passed through its Committee stage. But opponents of separation divorce let it be known that any Bill containing such a provision would be talked out; and, faced with this formidable opposition, Abse withdrew the clause adding separation to the grounds for divorce in exchange for an agreement that the other provisions in the Bill (designed to remove obstacles to reconciliation attempts ) would reach the statute book. An attempt in the House of Lords to reinstate the separation divorce provisions also failed (Kooy, 1977). A significant factor in this apparent further reverse for the cause of reform was thenow much more sophisticatedopposition of the Church, organised behind the scenes with great efficiency by the first holder of the post of Lay Secretary to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Beloe. Beloea distinguished educationalist and in that capacity a member of the Morton Commission had special responsibility for organising episcopal representation in the House of Lords and moved easily and confidently between Lambeth Palace, the Palace of Westminster and Whitehall. It is true that the contents of the Abse Bill at first took Beloe by surprise; but intelligenceon such matters as the religious affiliations and marital status of Cabinet Ministers was rapidly gathered and put efficiently to use. During the passage of the Abse Bill through the Commons, Beloe took an active part in the efforts to organise MPs opposed to separation divorce. He scrutinised the list of MPs nominated to serve on the Stan ding Committee considering the Bill (and he appears to have been successful in getting one change made). Finally, he masterminded the publication of a firm statement of the Churches opposition to separation divorce (Haskey, 1992). But Beloe really came into his element when the Abse Bill got to the House of Lords and Lord Silkin and others made a determined attempt to reinstate the clause permitting separation divorce. Beloes briefing paper for the Archbishop was prophetically headed How to secure rejection of Mr Abses clause; and to that end he skillfully organised opposition. Ramsey made a speech in the debate uncompromisingly rejecting the proposed addition of seven years separation to the existing grounds for divorce, and the Lords defeated the proposal on a division. Beloe appreciated that this could not be the end of the matter. He had been warned by the Permanent Under-Secretary at the Home Office that a Bill providing for separation divorce was almost certain to be introduced by a private member the following session; and he was concerned that the Conservative Party faced with the need to modernise its image in the run-up to a General Election might see divorce reform as one means of doing so (Smith, 1 997). Divorce provision Everyone agreed to be an unsatisfactory law and of not being prepared to face reality in its approach to social questions, while the way in which Abse had been forced to drop the separation divorce provision had given rise to a great deal of anti-clerical feeling. Against this background, the Church clearly needed to take some action; and the links and understandings established by Beloe during the progress of the Abse Bill became of crucial importance in apparently restoring the Church to its position of influence over policy (Simotta, 1995). The Churchs Board for Social Responsibility had in fact already initiated conversations about the possibility of some alternative basis for divorce, but progress had been slow. This led Beloe to float, at a meeting with senior officials from the Home Office and Lord Chancellors Department, the notion that the Archbishop might set on foot a somewhat more formal investigation into marriage and its dissolution; and the suggestion that the Archbishops mediation might be aimed at the possibility of substituting for all other grounds the ground that a marriage had come to an end emerged. Evidently this was favourably received; and in June the Archbishop announcedalbeit in a somewhat low key way that he had asked some fellow churchmen to seek to find a principle at law of breakdown of marriage . . . free from any trace of the idea of consent, which conserved the point that offences and not only wishes are the basis of breakdown, and which was protected by a far more thorough insistence on r econciliation procedure first (Peters, 1992). It is difficult to believe that this announcement brought much cheer to the supporters of divorce reform faced as they were with yet another failure to carry legislation through Parliament, or indeed whether the civil servants who had become involved had any real expectation that the Archbishops initiative would bear fruit; but in the event it proved to be of decisive importance in preparing the ground for the 1969 Reforms. The composition of what came to be called the Archbishops Group (chaired by Robert Mortimer, Bishop of Exeter was somewhat different from the group of churchmen originally envisaged by Ramsey, in part because both the Home Secretary and the Lord Chancellor took an active part in suggesting who should (and who should not) be asked to serve. It is true that membership was confined to those thought to be Christians, but no requirement of religious observance was imposed; and the selection process came to resemble that traditionally conducted in Whitehall trawls of th e great and the good, with slots being allocated to particular professions (for example, child psychiatry) and interests (for example, marriage guidance). There was one particular problem: criticism about the lack of social science expertise in the Morton Commission made it seem imperative that a sociologist be a member of the Archbishops Group; but considerable difficulty was experienced in identifying a sociologist who could be described as a Christian, even in the broadest interpretation of the word. Eventually Professor Donald MacRae accepted an invitation to join the group (Meisaari-Polsa, 1997). Invitations to join the group were ultimately sent out in January 1964; and the members held their first meeting at the Institute of Advanced Legal Studies on 26 May 1964. It had been decided (after some discussion) to make public the existence and remit of the Group. Ramseys letter of invitation to join the Group had made clear the dilemma the Church faced. He and other church leaders were opposed to seven years separation as a ground for divorce since if it did not also require consent this would cause great injustice whilst if it did it would undermine the nature of the marriage contract as a life-long intention. For those reasons it had been right to reject the Abse proposal. But the law remained unsatisfactory not least because there is often recourse to a fictitious planning of matrimonial offences in order to obtain a divorce (Kooy , 1977). How was the Group to resolve the dilemma? At the outset, Mortimer made it clear that the ultimate objective was to try to put forward proposals which would be acceptable to humanists and Christians alike. The numerous letters he had received touched on (1) the desire of one party to a marriage to be free to legitimise a new union and its issue and the reluctance of the other party to permit this; (2) the general ignorance of and impatience with legal procedures, particularly those which submit an undefending spouse to hearing unexpectedly the material facts alleged against him without opportunity to reply; (3) the difficulty of obtaining payment of maintenance without burdensome and costly visits to court; (4) the fear that divorce for separation might endanger general acceptance of marriage as a life long contract (Haskey, 1992). The Group met on eighteen occasions between May 1964 and March 1966, and considered an impressive body of evidence from some distinguished and expert witnesses. It did not take long for it to reach a consensus. The law as it stood was universally agreed to be unsatisfactory; and there was a strong prima-facie case for the substitution of irretrievable breakdown as the sole ground for divorce, replacing the matrimonial offence. The court would have power to dissolve marriage if having regard to the interests of society as well as of those immediately affected by its decision, it judged it wrong to maintain the legal existence of a relationship that was beyond all probability of existing again in fact.This would involve the court giving a judgment on the state of the marriage; and its decree would no longer be against the respondent but rather against further legal recognition of the marriage (Haller, 1977). The Group remained adamantly opposed to divorce by consent: which (as Bishop Mortimer was to say ) was open to the grave, indeed overwhelming objection that it would reduce marriage to a purely private contract and would ignore the interest of the community. Hence, it was to be for the court, representing the community, to decide whether the marriage had indeed irretrievably broken down; and, although the agreement of the parties in wanting a divorce would not be a bar (and might even count in favour of a decree) in no case would such an agreement of itself suffice to effect divorce. It was, for the Archbishops Group, essential that the court should always examine the issue of breakdown according to the evidence; and it made it clear that its recommendation for amendment of the substantive law was conditional upon procedural changes to enable the court to conduct the inquest it believed to be necessary into the alleged fact and causes of the death of the marriage relationship and to get to grips with the realities of the matrimonial relationship instead of havingas it thought was the case under the offence based lawto concentrate on superficialities (Gray, 1998). The Group refused to accept that any of the well-rehearsed objections to the breakdown principle outweighed its advantages. No doubt (the Group accepted) critics would point to the economic deprivation caused by divorce; but the solution to that lay primarily in reforms of the law of property, pensions (a topic much discussed) and insurance. The Group was correct in its prophesyindeed, the problem of pensions after divorce remains a source of difficulty more than thirty years laterbut it did not see it as part of its remit to prescribe detailed remedies for these problems (Graham-Siegenthaler, 1989). What of the objection that breakdown divorce would allow the guilty to take advantage of their own wrong? The Group thought that the courts judgment could and should be seen as the recognition of a state of affairs and a consequent redefinition of status (rather than as a verdict of guilty after a law suit), and for that reason the maxim would have no general application. But even so, the Group accepted the need for a safeguardin the form of an absolute bar on divorcein cases in which to grant a divorce would be outweighed by other considerations of fundamental importance such as the public interest in justice and in protecting the institution of marriage (Goode, 1993). On one matter in particular the Group was adamant: the doctrine of breakdown was an alternative to divorce founded on the matrimonial offencethe lesser of two evils. On no account should breakdown be introduced into the existing law in the form of an additional ground for divorce. Indeed, the Group thought that rather than to inject into [the offence based law]a small but virulent dose of incompatible principle it would be better to keep the law based firmly on the matrimonial offence and to consider how the administration of the law could be improved (Glendon, 1989). The Established Church had traditionally opposed any further erosion of the great principle proclaimed by Christ holding marriage to be a life-long obligation terminable only by death with all the sacrifice which such an obligation imposed; but as long ago as 1937 the Church had come to accept that it was no longer possible to impose the full Christian standard by law on a largely non-Christian population. On that basis, Putting Asunder at the outset drew a distinction to which it attached great importance. How the doctrine of Christ concerning marriage should be interpreted and applied within the Christian Church is one question: what the Church ought to say and do about secular laws of marriage and divorce is another question altogether . . . Our own terms of reference make it abundantly clear that our business is with the second question only. Hence (as the Observer newspaper put it) the Report was not in any sense another theological tract written by theologians for the Churchs c ommunicants. (Glendon, 1987) The Commission accordingly produced a Paper, which was discussed at a meeting with Representatives of the Archbishops Group on 17 February 1966. Mortimer insisted that any presumption of breakdown arising from the various fact situations enumerated by the Commission should be capable of being rebutted in order to avoid any suggestion that the matrimonial offence was to be preserved under another name; and he repeatedly emphasised the need to ensure the effectiveness of the various safeguards proposed by the Group. However, the two sides agreed that there appeared to be no difference in principle between the Group and the Commission; and the Commission redrafted its paper to reflect those discussions (Fisher, 1992). In the meantime, opinion was being prepared for a breakthrough. The Lord Chancellor announced that the gap between the two bodies was being narrowed; and the Church Assembly on 16 February 1967after an important debate in the course of which Professor J. N. D. Anderson warned of the mounting and increasingly broadly based demand for reform which he thought it would be disastrous for the Church to ignore resolved to welcome Putting Asunder (Federkeil, 1997). Eventually on 2 June 1967the terms of the agreement between the Archbishops Group and the Law Commission were finalised and in due course published: irretrievable breakdown was to be the sole ground for divorce, but there should be no detailed inquest. Rather, breakdown was to be inferred, either from one of several specified facts askin to the traditional matrimonial offences or from the fact that the parties had lived apart for two years if the respondent consented to divorce or for five years if there were no consent. Mortimer had insisted on one alteration to what had been intended as the final draftnamely that the power to refuse a Decree where the Court thinks that in the circumstances it would be wrong to do so, shall be mandatory and not permissive. This amendment was duly made (whereas various other requests by the Group were not accepted by the Commission) (Friedberg, 1998). But all this was too late to influence events. On 12 October the Cabinet accepted Gardiners advice that a Bill to give effect to the concordat should be drafted by Parliamentary Counsel in the Law Commission and handed to a private member. The Government was to remain neutral on the merits of the Bill but would consider making government time available for the Bill in the light of the degree of support shown for it on Second Reading. The Law Commission settled Instructions to Parliamentary Counsel, and on 29 November the House of Commons ordered the Divorce Reform Bill presented by Mr William Wilson MP to be printed. Although there was inadequate parliamentary time for the Wilson Bill to get onto the statute book the Bill was taken over by another private member, Mr Alec Jones, and received the Royal Assent on 22 October 1969 (Ermisch, 1993). As has long been recognised, the publication of Putting Asunder played an important part in facilitating the reform of the divorce law effected by the Divorce Reform Act 1969not least influencing what has been described as the quite remarkable consensus on the broad lines of reformand Putting Asunder certainly had a decisive influence on the form which the legislation took. But how far did that Act truly give effect to the principles upon which the Archbishops Group founded their support for reform? (Council of Europe, 1998). First, the Group was adamant that irretrievable breakdown should be the only ground for divorce; and it is true that the Divorce Reform Act 1969 provided that the sole ground upon which a petition could be based was that the marriage had broken down irretrievably. But it soon became clear that this ringing assertion was little more than verbiage. However clear it might be that the marriage had broken down, the court could not dissolve it unless the petitioner could establish adultery, behaviour, desertion, or a period of living apart; and if any of those facts could be established the court was bound to dissolve the marriage unless the respondent could discharge the almost impossible task of satisfying the court that the marriage had not broken down. There is no reported instance of a respondent succeeding in so doing; and Mortimers assumption that the evidence of breakdown would be rebuttable rather than conclusive has been demonstrably falsified. The reality is that the effective g round for divorce under the 1969 Act was not breakdown at all but rather the three matrimonial offences referred to above and separation for the prescribed period: Andersons gloomy prophesy turned out to have been well founded. The remarkable consensus was obtained by concealing the truth (Commaille, J., et al, 1983). Moreover, experience soon showed that the divorcing population wanted the speedy divorce which could be obtained on the basis of an allegation of adultery or behaviour, and more than three-quarters of all divorces were granted in that way. This tendency was reinforced in 1977 when court hearings of divorce petitions were effectively abandoned. Far from burying the matrimonial offence, the reforming legislation ensured that it not only survived but flourished (Clark, 1999). Secondly, the Group was adamant that there should be no divorce by consent. The parties might indeed consent to the dissolution of their marriage but this was only to be brought about by court order after appropriate inquiry. Divorce was not only to remain the act of the court, rather than that of the parties; but it was central to the Groups thinking that the Court should first satisfy itself by inquiry that the marriage had truly broken down and (as Mortimer put it in the final debate) the courts must take seriously their duty to enquire into all the facts alleged and to be quite sure that they are satisfied that the marriage has irretrievably broken down. But in fact the court hearings under the Divorce Reform Act were rarely more than a perfunctory formality; and even the formality was effectively abolished in 1977. Yet again, the legislation failed to give effect to the policy on which Putting Asunder had been founded. Those responsible for formulating the concordat must have kn own that there would in practice rarely if ever be any inquiry into breakdown; but, unsurprisingly, they chose not to disabuse Mortimer and his colleagues of their belief that the court would carry out an inquest, at least in cases of doubt (Coase, 1960). Finally, the Group consistently insisted on the need for safeguardsboth of the interests of vulnerable members of the family and of the public interest in upholding the institution of marriage. So far as economic saf

Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience :: Essays Papers

Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience The Federal Republic of Germany, once a menacing dictatorship on a path of world domination, is currently the leading nation in the European Union and the third-leading contributor to the United Nations. Germany has come a long way since its reunification in 1990. It is now fully committed to a foreign policy based around peace, stability, and development, Germany is entirely committed to protecting the future of the global community. Germany maintains that the accomplishment of these goals resides in the strengthening of international organizations, specifically the United Nations, and for a more active participation by the German Republic. Germany’s active role in the United Nations can be reflected in its participation amongst the UN’s various arms, specifically the Security Council. Currently on its fourth term as a non-permanent member of the Council, Germany, with a majority of support from the General Assembly of the UN, has declared its willingness for a seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. In an effort to change its bloodied past, Germany hopes its inclusion as a permanent member would allow them to facilitate further peacekeeping missions with greater ease. Additionally, Germany hopes to increase the scope of international developmental projects undertaken by the UN. The idea of a unified federation of the world’s nations was first spawned by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. Kant believed that this federation of nations would be founded on a platform of â€Å"Universal Hospitality,† in which no person â€Å"had more right than another to a particular part of the earth† (Kant). He also expressed that no country should interfere with the government of another. In addition, larger, more powerful countries shall not use smaller countries for their own gain. Such a federation would perform as a collective security against aggressors. With the conception of the League of Nations, Kant’s doctrine became a reality in the early 20th century after World War I. The League of Nations lasted from 1920 to 1946 with 63 different countries represented (Encarta). Though it lacked the backing of superpowers, such as the United States, and did not sustain its goal of preventing another world war, the League of Nations provided a model for the United Nations in 1941. Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience :: Essays Papers Germany’s Inclusion as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council: Breaking Free from its Historic Subservience The Federal Republic of Germany, once a menacing dictatorship on a path of world domination, is currently the leading nation in the European Union and the third-leading contributor to the United Nations. Germany has come a long way since its reunification in 1990. It is now fully committed to a foreign policy based around peace, stability, and development, Germany is entirely committed to protecting the future of the global community. Germany maintains that the accomplishment of these goals resides in the strengthening of international organizations, specifically the United Nations, and for a more active participation by the German Republic. Germany’s active role in the United Nations can be reflected in its participation amongst the UN’s various arms, specifically the Security Council. Currently on its fourth term as a non-permanent member of the Council, Germany, with a majority of support from the General Assembly of the UN, has declared its willingness for a seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. In an effort to change its bloodied past, Germany hopes its inclusion as a permanent member would allow them to facilitate further peacekeeping missions with greater ease. Additionally, Germany hopes to increase the scope of international developmental projects undertaken by the UN. The idea of a unified federation of the world’s nations was first spawned by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the late 18th century. Kant believed that this federation of nations would be founded on a platform of â€Å"Universal Hospitality,† in which no person â€Å"had more right than another to a particular part of the earth† (Kant). He also expressed that no country should interfere with the government of another. In addition, larger, more powerful countries shall not use smaller countries for their own gain. Such a federation would perform as a collective security against aggressors. With the conception of the League of Nations, Kant’s doctrine became a reality in the early 20th century after World War I. The League of Nations lasted from 1920 to 1946 with 63 different countries represented (Encarta). Though it lacked the backing of superpowers, such as the United States, and did not sustain its goal of preventing another world war, the League of Nations provided a model for the United Nations in 1941.